India faces severe environmental challenges due to its large population, rapid economic growth, urbanization, and industrialization. These issues have significant implications for health, biodiversity, and long-term sustainability.
Air Pollution
India has the 2nd worst air quality in the world (after Bangladesh), with annual average PM2.5 of ~55 µg/m³ — more than 10x the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³. 21 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities are in India.
Sources
| Source |
Contribution (PM2.5) |
Sector |
| Residential (cooking/heating) |
25-35% |
Biomass burning, cow dung |
| Industrial |
20-30% |
Thermal power plants, brick kilns, steel/cement |
| Transport |
10-20% |
Vehicle emissions (especially diesel) |
| Agricultural stubble burning |
5-10% |
Oct-Nov in Punjab, Haryana (seasonal: up to 40% of Delhi pollution) |
| Construction |
5-8% |
Dust from construction sites |
| Others |
5-10% |
Open waste burning, crematoria, DG sets |
Regional Patterns
| Region |
AQI Status |
Key Pollutant |
Peak Season |
| Delhi-NCR |
Severe (Nov-Dec) |
PM2.5 |
Winter (temperature inversion + stubble burning) |
| Indo-Gangetic Plain |
Poor-Severe |
PM2.5, PM10 |
Winter |
| Mumbai |
Moderate-Poor |
PM2.5, NO₂ |
Winter |
| Bengaluru |
Moderate |
PM2.5 |
Winter |
| Chennai |
Moderate |
PM2.5 |
No clear season |
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
- Launched: 2019; Target: 20-30% reduction in PM2.5/PM10 by 2024 (extended to 2026)
- Covers 131 non-attainment cities (cities exceeding NAQS norms)
- City-specific action plans; funding through 15th Finance Commission grants
- Achieved: ~20% reduction (2024) — partial success; more needed
Water Pollution
Major Polluted River Stretches (CPCB 2018)
| Rank |
River Stretch |
State |
Pollutant |
| 1 |
Sabarmati (Ahmedabad) |
Gujarat |
High BOD, coliform |
| 2 |
Yamuna (Delhi to Mathura) |
UP, Delhi |
Untreated sewage, industrial effluents |
| 3 |
Ganga (Kannauj to Varanasi) |
UP |
High coliform, BOD |
| 4 |
Musi (Hyderabad) |
Telangana |
Heavy metals, sewage |
| 5 |
Godavari (Parts) |
Telangana, AP |
Untreated sewage |
| 6 |
Cauvery (Parts) |
TN, Karnataka |
Effluents |
Namami Gange Programme
- Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission (2014)
- Budget: ₹20,000+ crore
- Components: Sewerage treatment (new STPs/gCMS), riverfront development, afforestation, biodiversity
- Achievements: 200+ STPs installed/under construction; dolphins census (2,500 Ganges river dolphins); Ganga gram (model villages)
- Challenges: Only ~40% of targeted sewage treatment capacity operational; intermittent compliance by industrial units
Forest Loss and Degradation
Deforestation Drivers
| Driver |
% of Deforestation |
Regions |
| Agriculture expansion |
60% |
NE India (jhum/shifting cultivation), MP, CG |
| Development projects |
25% |
Dams, roads, railways, urban expansion (NE, central India) |
| Mining |
10% |
Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Goa |
| Others |
5% |
Encroachment, illegal logging |
India State of Forest Report (ISFR 2023)
| Metric |
Data |
| Total forest cover |
7,13,789 km² (21.67% of geographic area) |
| Very dense forest |
3.01% |
| Moderately dense forest |
9.60% |
| Open forest |
9.06% |
| Forest cover change (2019-2023) |
+1,445 km² (small net increase) |
| Tree cover (outside forests) |
1.27% |
Climate Change Impacts on India
| Impact |
Observed |
Projected |
| Temperature rise |
0.6°C (1901-2020) |
2.0-4.5°C by 2100 |
| Monsoon variability |
Increasing extreme rainfall events; 40% increase in frequency |
More intense rainfall + longer dry spells |
| Sea-level rise |
1.3 mm/year (recent: 3.3 mm/year) |
0.3-0.8 m by 2100 |
| Glacier retreat |
Himalayan glaciers retreating 20-30 m/year |
60-80% loss by 2100 (worst case) |
| Heatwaves |
Frequency increased 5x since 1960s |
More intense; affecting 300+ million |
| Cyclones |
Increased cyclone intensity in Bay of Bengal |
Category 4-5 cyclones more frequent |
Conservation Initiatives
| Initiative |
Focus |
Achievements |
| Project Tiger (1973) |
Tiger conservation |
3,600+ tigers (from 1,411 in 2006); 55 reserves |
| Project Elephant (1992) |
Asian elephant |
30,000+ elephants; 33 elephant reserves |
| Project Rhino (2005) |
One-horned rhinoceros |
Kaziranga: 2,600+ (from 366 in 1966) |
| Gharial Project |
Crocodile conservation |
Captive breeding + reintroduction |
| Vulture Conservation |
3 species critically endangered |
Captive breeding centers (Pinjore, Buxa, etc.) |
| Hangul Conservation |
Kashmir stag |
Dachigam + Captive breeding program |
| Sangai (dancing deer) |
Manipur’s brow-antlered deer |
Keibul Lamjao National Park; ~260 individuals |
| Great Indian Bustard |
Rajasthan, Gujarat |
Critically endangered (~150 left) |
Corporate and Policy Framework
| Policy/Law |
Purpose |
| National Environment Policy (2006) |
Framework document |
| Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification (2006, amended 2020) |
Project approval process; concerns over dilution |
| Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (1991, 2011, 2019) |
Coastal development regulation |
| National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) (2008) |
8 missions: Solar, Energy Efficiency, Water, etc. |
| State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC) |
33 states/UTs have plans |
| Land Degradation Neutrality (UNCCD) |
Target: 26 million hectares restored by 2030 |
