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Buddhism and Jainism — New Religious Movements
The Religious Context of 6th Century BCE
The 6th century BCE was a period of intellectual ferment in India. The rigid Vedic ritualism dominated by Brahmanas, hereditary caste system, and expensive sacrifices led to widespread dissatisfaction. This created fertile ground for new religious and philosophical movements.
Causes for the Rise of Heterodox Sects
- Vedic ritualism: Elaborate, expensive sacrifices beyond the reach of common people
- Brahmanical dominance: Priestly monopoly over religion and Sanskrit
- Varna rigidity: Hereditary caste system causing social discontent
- Rise of agricultural economy: Killing of animals in sacrifices was seen as counterproductive
- New social classes: Traders and merchants supported non-violence and simpler faiths
- Intellectual climate: Free debate and philosophical inquiry flourished in the Mahajanapada period
Buddhism
Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE)
| Detail | Information |
|---|---|
| Birth name | Siddhartha |
| Clan | Shakya (Kshatriya) |
| Father | Shuddhodhana (chief of Kapilavastu) |
| Mother | Mahamaya (died 7 days after his birth) |
| Stepmother | Mahaprajapati Gautami (raised him) |
| Wife | Yashodhara |
| Son | Rahula |
| Birthplace | Lumbini (Nepal) |
| Birth date | Vaishakha Purnima |
The Four Great Sights
According to tradition, Siddhartha encountered four sights that led him to renunciation:
- An old man — realization of aging
- A sick man — realization of disease
- A dead body — realization of mortality
- An ascetic — possibility of liberation from suffering
The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana)
- At age 29, Siddhartha left his palace, wife, and newborn son
- Practiced severe asceticism for 6 years under teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta
- Found extreme asceticism as futile as indulgence; discovered the Middle Path
Enlightenment (Bodhi)
- At age 35, attained enlightenment under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree) at Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
- On the 49th day of meditation, on Vaishakha Purnima, he became the Buddha (the Awakened One)
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana)
- Delivered at Sarnath (near Varanasi) in the Deer Park
- First five disciples: the five ascetics who had earlier abandoned him
- Set the “Wheel of Dharma” in motion
Death (Mahaparinirvana)
- Died at age 80 at Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh)
- Last words: “All conditioned things are impermanent. Strive diligently for your liberation.”
Core Teachings of Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)
- Dukkha: Life is suffering
- Samudaya: The cause of suffering is desire (tanha) and ignorance (avidya)
- Nirodha: Suffering can be ended by eliminating desire
- Magga: The way to end suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga)
| Division | Path Factor | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Wisdom (Prajna) | Right View | Understanding the Four Noble Truths |
| Right Intention | Renunciation, goodwill, harmlessness | |
| Morality (Shila) | Right Speech | No lying, slander, harsh words, gossip |
| Right Action | No killing, stealing, sexual misconduct | |
| Right Livelihood | Ethical occupation | |
| Concentration (Samadhi) | Right Effort | Preventing and abandoning unwholesome states |
| Right Mindfulness | Awareness of body, feelings, mind, phenomena | |
| Right Concentration | Meditative absorption (jhanas) |
Other Key Concepts
- Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination): Everything arises from causes and conditions; nothing exists independently
- Anitya (Impermanence): Everything is constantly changing
- Anatman (No-Self): There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul
- Karma: Actions have consequences, but no permanent soul transmigrates
- Nirvana: The cessation of suffering; the ultimate goal
- Middle Path (Madhyamika Prati-pada): Avoiding extremes of indulgence and asceticism
Code of Conduct
- Five Precepts (Panchashila) for laity:
- Refrain from killing
- Refrain from stealing
- Refrain from sexual misconduct
- Refrain from false speech
- Refrain from intoxicants
- Ten Precepts for monks (additional five): no eating after noon, no entertainment/ornaments, no luxurious beds, no handling money
Buddhist Councils
| Council | Year | Venue | Patron | President | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | 483 BCE | Rajagriha | Ajatashatru | Mahakashyapa | Compilation of Vinaya Pitaka (Upali) and Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) |
| Second | 383 BCE | Vaishali | Kalashoka | Sabbakami | Split between Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas |
| Third | 250 BCE | Pataliputra | Ashoka | Moggaliputta Tissa | Abhidhamma Pitaka added; heretics expelled; missionaries sent |
| Fourth | 1st century CE | Kashmir | Kanishka | Vasumitra | Mahayana-Hinayana split formalized; Mahavibhasha composed |
Buddhist Schools
Hinayana (Theravada)
- “Lesser Vehicle” or “Way of the Elders”
- Emphasizes individual liberation through monastic life
- Buddha as a historical teacher, not divine
- Pali canon as authority
- Survives in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos
Mahayana
- “Greater Vehicle”
- Emphasis on compassion and universal liberation (bodhisattva ideal)
- Buddha as a divine being; multiple Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
- Sanskrit canon; new sutras (Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra)
- Spread to China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet
- Sub-schools: Madhyamika (Nagarjuna — Shunyavada), Yogachara (Vijnanavada)
Vajrayana
- “Diamond Vehicle” — Tantric Buddhism
- Developed in Eastern India (8th–12th century CE)
- Incorporates tantric rituals, mantras, mandalas
- Major influence in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia
Buddhist Literature
Tripitaka (Three Baskets) — The Pali Canon
- Vinaya Pitaka — Rules for monastic discipline
- Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, Parivara
- Sutta Pitaka — Discourses of the Buddha
- Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya
- Dhammapada (in Khuddaka Nikaya) — Most popular; 423 verses on ethics
- Jataka Tales — Stories of Buddha’s previous births (547 stories)
- Abhidhamma Pitaka — Philosophical analysis of doctrine
Non-Canonical Works
- Milinda Panha — Dialogue between Indo-Greek King Menander (Milinda) and monk Nagasena
- Buddhacharita — Biography of Buddha by Ashvaghosha (Sanskrit)
- Mahavastu — Mahayana biography of Buddha
- Lalitavistara — Elaborate Mahayana biography
Spread of Buddhism
Ashoka’s Role (3rd century BCE)
- Sent missionaries to Sri Lanka (Mahendra and Sanghamitra), Burma, Central Asia
- Missionaries to Greek kingdoms: Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Cyrene, Epirus
Later Patronage
- Kanishka (Kushana): Spread along Silk Route to Central Asia and China
- Harshavardhana: Patron of Mahayana Buddhism
- Pala rulers (Bengal): Supported Buddhist universities (Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri)
Decline in India
- Brahmanical revival under Guptas and later
- Absorption of Buddhist ideas into Hinduism
- Turkish invasions destroyed monasteries (Nalanda in 1193 CE by Bakhtiyar Khalji)
- Loss of royal patronage after 8th century CE
Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 540–468 BCE)
| Detail | Information |
|---|---|
| Birth name | Vardhamana |
| Clan | Jnatrika (Kshatriya) |
| Father | Siddhartha (chief of Jnatrika clan) |
| Mother | Trishala (Lichchhavi princess; sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali) |
| Wife | Yashoda |
| Daughter | Priyadarshana (Anojja) |
| Birthplace | Kundagrama (near Vaishali, Bihar) |
| Birth date | Chaitra Shukla 13 |
Life Events
- Renunciation: At age 30, after his parents’ death (with his elder brother’s permission)
- 12 years of penance: Wandered as a naked ascetic; practiced extreme austerity (tapas)
- Kaivalya (Omniscience): Attained at age 42 under a sal tree on the bank of Rijupalika River near Jrimbhikagrama
- First sermon: At Mount Vipulachala (Rajgir)
- Death (Moksha/Nirvana): At age 72 at Pavapuri (Bihar)
- Title: Jina (conqueror), Mahavira (great hero), Tirthankara (ford-maker)
24 Tirthankaras
| Position | Name | Symbol | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) | Bull | First Tirthankara; mentioned in Rig Veda; founded social institutions |
| 22nd | Neminatha | Conch | Cousin of Krishna; from Saurashtra |
| 23rd | Parshvanatha | Serpent | 250 years before Mahavira; from Varanasi; taught 4 vows |
| 24th | Mahavira | Lion | Contemporary of Buddha; systematized Jainism |
Parshvanatha’s Four Vows (Chaturyama Dharma)
- Ahimsa (non-violence)
- Satya (truth)
- Asteya (non-stealing)
- Aparigraha (non-possession)
Mahavira added: Brahmacharya (celibacy) as the 5th vow.
Core Teachings of Jainism
Three Jewels (Triratna)
- Samyak Darshana (Right Faith) — Belief in the Tirthankaras and Jaina scriptures
- Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge) — Knowledge of Jaina doctrine
- Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct) — Practice of the five vows
Five Great Vows (Mahavrata)
- Ahimsa — Non-violence (absolute; includes mental, verbal, and physical)
- Satya — Truth
- Asteya — Non-stealing
- Brahmacharya — Celibacy
- Aparigraha — Non-possession (complete for monks; limited for laity)
Key Doctrines
- Anekantavada: Doctrine of many-sidedness; reality can be perceived from multiple viewpoints
- Syadvada: Theory of conditional predication; statements are true only in certain contexts
- Nayavada: Standpoint doctrine; seven ways of looking at reality
- No Creator God: The universe is eternal and operates by natural laws; no supreme creator
- Karma as matter: Karma is a subtle material substance that binds to the soul
- Moksha: Liberation achieved by shedding all karmic matter through right conduct and austerity
- Sallekhana: Voluntary fasting unto death (sanctified by Jaina tradition)
Jaina Literature
Agamas (Sacred Texts)
Shvetambara Canon (45 texts):
- 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnakas, 6 Chedasutras, 4 Mulasutras, 2 Chulika Sutras
- Written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
- Compiled at the Council of Valabhi (Gujarat, 5th century CE)
Digambara Literature:
- Rejects the Shvetambara canon as not original
- Important works: Shatkhandagama, Kashayaprabhrita, commentaries by Kundakunda
Important Jaina Texts and Authors
- Kundakunda (1st CE): Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pravachanasara
- Umasvati/Umasvami (4th CE): Tattvarthasutra — only text accepted by both sects
- Haribhadra (8th CE): Commentaries on Jaina philosophy
- Hemachandra (12th CE): Notable grammarian and historian
Jaina Councils
| Council | Venue | President | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|
| First | Pataliputra (~300 BCE) | Sthulabhadra | Compilation of 12 Angas |
| Second | Valabhi (512 CE) | Devardhigani Kshamashramana | Final compilation of Shvetambara canon |
Sects of Jainism
Schism
The split occurred after the migration of a Jaina community under Bhadrabahu to Karnataka during a 12-year famine in Magadha (c. 300 BCE).
| Aspect | Shvetambara | Digambara |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | “White-clad” | “Sky-clad” (naked) |
| Clothing | Monks wear white robes | Monks go naked |
| Women | Can attain liberation | Cannot attain liberation without rebirth as male |
| Mahavira | Was married | Was celibate |
| Canon | Accept 45 Agamas | Reject Shvetambara canon |
| Food | Can eat after sunset | Cannot eat after sunset |
| Idol decoration | Worship decorated idols | Worship undecorated idols |
| Regional presence | Gujarat, Rajasthan | Karnataka, Maharashtra |
Patronage and Spread
- Chandragupta Maurya (Digambara tradition): Became a Jaina monk; retired to Shravanabelagola with Bhadrabahu
- Kharavela (Kalinga): Patronized Jainism; built caves at Udayagiri-Khandagiri
- Ganga Dynasty (Karnataka): Built the Gomateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola
- Rashtrakutas: Patronized Digambara Jainism
- Solankis (Gujarat): Supported Jainism; built Dilwara temples at Mount Abu
Contribution of Buddhism and Jainism
- Language: Popularized Prakrit and Pali; made religion accessible to common people
- Non-violence: Profoundly influenced Indian culture and later Hinduism
- Equality: Opposed caste-based discrimination
- Education: Monasteries and viharas as centers of learning
- Art and Architecture: Stupas, viharas, chaityas, cave temples