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Maurya Empire — Chandragupta to Ashoka

5 min read indian-history ancient-history maurya ashoka chanakya

Foundation of the Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent under a single administration. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Chanakya (Kautilya).

Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE)

  • Rise: Overthrew Dhana Nanda of the Nanda dynasty with Chanakya’s help
  • Context: Alexander’s retreat (325 BCE) left a power vacuum in NW India
  • War with Seleucus I Nicator (305 BCE): Seleucus, Alexander’s successor in the east, crossed the Indus but was defeated
  • Treaty: Seleucus ceded territories (Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae, Aria), gave a daughter in marriage, received 500 war elephants
  • Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador, was sent to Chandragupta’s court at Pataliputra
  • Later life: According to Jaina tradition, abdicated; became a Jaina ascetic under Bhadrabahu; retired to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka); died by sallekhana

Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta)

  • Role: Brahmin teacher from Taxila; Chandragupta’s chief advisor and prime minister
  • Arthashastra: His magnum opus — a comprehensive treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy
  • Divided into 15 books (adhikaranas); 180 chapters
  • Covers: duties of king, administration, law and justice, taxation, foreign policy, warfare
  • Saptanga Theory: Seven elements of the state — Swami (king), Amatya (ministers), Janapada (territory), Durga (fort), Kosha (treasury), Danda (army), Mitra (allies)
  • Mandala Theory: Foreign policy based on “enemy’s enemy is friend”

Bindusara (298–273 BCE)

  • Son of Chandragupta; called Amitrochates (Amitraghata — destroyer of enemies) by Greeks
  • Extended Mauryan control to the Deccan
  • Maintained diplomatic relations with Greek kingdoms
  • Requested Antiochus I of Syria to send a Greek philosopher (denied)
  • Deimachus was the Greek ambassador at his court
  • Patronage: Supported the Ajivika sect

Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)

Early Life and Accession

  • Son of Bindusara and Subhadrangi (Dharma)
  • Served as Viceroy of Ujjain and Taxila before accession
  • Suppressed a revolt in Taxila as prince
  • According to Buddhist texts, there was a 4-year struggle for succession; Ashoka killed 99 brothers (debatable)
  • Coronation in 269 BCE (four years after accession)

The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE)

  • The pivotal event of Ashoka’s reign
  • Kalinga was an independent prosperous kingdom on the eastern coast
  • Devastating casualties: “150,000 taken captive, 100,000 slain, many times that number perished” — Major Rock Edict XIII
  • Ashoka was horrified by the suffering; embraced Buddhism and Dhamma Vijaya (conquest by righteousness)

Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ashoka’s Dhamma was a code of ethical conduct, not a religion per se:

  • Non-violence (Ahimsa) and compassion for all living beings
  • Religious tolerance and mutual respect among all sects
  • Respect for parents, elders, teachers, and Brahmins
  • Proper treatment of servants, slaves, and prisoners
  • Truthfulness, charity, and self-control
  • Welfare measures: Planting trees, digging wells, building rest-houses, hospitals for humans and animals

Propagation of Dhamma

  • Dhamma Mahamatras: Special officers appointed to spread Dhamma
  • Dhamma Yatras: Tours for teaching Dhamma instead of hunting expeditions
  • Third Buddhist Council: Held at Pataliputra (250 BCE) under Moggaliputta Tissa; heretical monks expelled
  • Missionaries sent to:
    • Sri Lanka (Mahendra and Sanghamitra)
    • Burma (Suwarnabhumi — Sona and Uttara)
    • Kashmir-Gandhara (Majjhantika)
    • Greek kingdoms (Maharakkhita)
    • Maharashtra, Mysore, Himalayan regions

Ashokan Edicts

The edicts are the earliest decipherable written records from India:

Type Language Script Locations
Major Rock Edicts (14) Prakrit Brahmi (Kharoshthi in NW) 8 places: Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra, Kalsi, Girnar, Sopara, Dhauli, Jaugada, Yerragudi
Minor Rock Edicts Prakrit Brahmi Multiple places; personal nature
Pillar Edicts (7) Prakrit Brahmi Originally at Topra, Meerut, Kaushambi, etc.; now mostly in Delhi
Major Pillar Edicts Prakrit Brahmi Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva
Separate Edicts Prakrit Brahmi Kalinga Edicts (Dhauli, Jaugada) — special instructions for Kalinga
Bilingual Edict Greek & Aramaic Greek, Aramaic Kandahar (Afghanistan)

Art and Architecture Under Ashoka

  • Pillars: Monolithic polished sandstone pillars with animal capitals
    • Sarnath Lion Capital: Four lions seated back to back (now India’s National Emblem)
    • Other capitals: Bull (Rampurva), Elephant (Sankissa), Single Lion (Lauriya-Nandangarh)
  • Stupas: Enlarged and built stupas at many sites; original brick stupas were encased in stone
  • Cave architecture: Barabar Caves (Bihar) — earliest rock-cut caves in India; donated to Ajivikas
  • Palace: Pataliputra palace impressed Megasthenes; remains excavated at Kumhrar (80-pillared hall)

Successors of Ashoka

After Ashoka’s death (232 BCE), the empire began to decline:

  • Dasaratha (grandson): Last Mauryan to issue inscriptions
  • Samprati (grandson): Important Jaina patron
  • Shatadhanvan and Brihadratha (last): Assassinated by his commander Pushyamitra Shunga (185 BCE)

Mauryan Administration

Central Administration

  • King: Supreme authority in all matters — legislative, executive, judicial, military
  • Council of Ministers (Mantri Parishad): Advisory body
  • Departments headed by Mahamatras (superintendents):
    • Agriculture, Trade, Mining, Weights & Measures, Excise, etc.

Provincial Administration

Province Capital Viceroy Type
Uttarapatha (NW) Taxila Prince
Avantiratha (West) Ujjain Prince
Dakshinapatha (South) Suvarnagiri Prince
Kalinga (East) Tosali Prince
Prachya (Center-East) Pataliputra Direct king’s rule

District and Village Level

  • Pradeshika: District officer; supervised revenue collection
  • Rajuka: Revenue and judicial officer; later entrusted with welfare under Ashoka
  • Yukta: Subordinate revenue officer
  • Gramika: Village headman

Espionage System

  • Highly developed spy network (described in Arthashastra)
  • Samstha: Stationary spies (disguised as students, ascetics, householders, merchants)
  • Sanchara: Mobile spies; traveling agents

Economy

  • Land Revenue (Bhaga): 1/6th to 1/4th of produce; main source of state income
  • Taxation: Tolls, excise, forest produce, mines, irrigation charges
  • State monopoly: Mines, forests, salt, liquor, arms
  • Coinage: Silver pana and copper mashaka
  • Trade: Both internal and external; trade with Hellenistic kingdoms

Military

According to Megasthenes, the army was administered by a six-member board overseeing:

  1. Navy, 2. Transport/commissariat, 3. Infantry, 4. Cavalry, 5. Chariots, 6. Elephants

Estimated size: 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, 8,000 chariots

Decline of the Maurya Empire

Key factors:

  1. Weak successors after Ashoka
  2. Over-centralization: Vast empire difficult to govern without modern communication
  3. Financial strain: Expensive bureaucracy and military; heavy taxation
  4. Neglect of military: Ashoka’s pacifism may have weakened the army
  5. Provincial revolts: Local governors asserted independence
  6. Brahmanical reaction: Against Ashoka’s pro-Buddhist policies and ban on animal sacrifice
  7. Economic decline: Debasement of coinage in later period
  8. Pushyamitra’s coup: The final blow in 185 BCE