Political Fragmentation After the Mauryas (185 BCE–320 CE)
The fall of the Maurya Empire led to a period of political fragmentation, with multiple dynasties ruling different parts of India. This period also witnessed extensive contact with Central Asia and the Hellenistic world, leading to significant cultural, religious, and commercial transformations.
Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BCE)
Pushyamitra Shunga
- Founder: Brahmin commander-in-chief of the last Maurya king Brihadratha; assassinated him and usurped the throne
- Extent: Controlled the Ganges valley, parts of central India, and possibly extended to Narmada
- Wars: Defended against the Bactrian Greek invasion under Demetrius (or Menander) — successfully repelled
- Persecution of Buddhism (according to Buddhist texts like Divyavadana): Destroyed monasteries and killed monks; however, the Sanchi stupa was enlarged during his reign, suggesting complex reality
- Performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices — reassertion of Brahmanical tradition
- Capital: Vidisha (modern Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh)
Later Shunga Rulers
| Ruler |
Notable Events |
| Agnimitra |
Son of Pushyamitra; hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram; viceroy of Vidisha |
| Vasumitra |
Defeated Indo-Greeks according to Malavikagnimitram |
| Bhagabhadra |
Heliodorus Pillar at Vidisha erected during his reign by Heliodorus, Greek ambassador of Antialcidas |
| Devabhuti |
Last Shunga; killed by his minister Vasudeva Kanva |
Cultural Achievements Under Shungas
- Stupa enlargement: Sanchi Stupa encased in stone and enlarged; Bharhut Stupa
- Stone construction: Shift from wood and brick to stone in architecture
- Vedic revival: Patronage of Brahmanical rituals; composition of Manusmriti in this period
- Sanskrit literature: Kalidasa placed his play Malavikagnimitram in this period
Kanva Dynasty (73–28 BCE)
- Vasudeva Kanva assassinated the last Shunga king; ruled for about 45 years
- Four kings: Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana, Susarman
- Controlled the Magadha region only
- Last ruler Susarman killed by the Satavahanas
Indo-Greeks (c. 200 BCE–10 CE)
Background
- Greek rulers of Bactria (modern Afghanistan) expanded into India after the decline of Mauryas
- Over 30 Indo-Greek kings ruled parts of NW India
Important Indo-Greek Kings
| King |
Capital |
Features |
| Demetrius I |
Shakala (Sialkot) |
First Indo-Greek to invade India; his coins show him wearing elephant scalp headdress |
| Menander I (Milinda) |
Shakala |
Greatest Indo-Greek ruler; converted to Buddhism; dialogues recorded in Milindapanha |
| Antialcidas |
Taxila |
Sent Heliodorus as ambassador to Shunga court |
| Strato II |
— |
Last Indo-Greek king (c. 10 CE) |
Menander I (Milinda) (c. 165–130 BCE)
- Greatest Indo-Greek king: Extended rule from Kabul to Mathura
- Conversion to Buddhism: His dialogues with Buddhist monk Nagasena recorded in the Milindapanha (The Questions of King Milinda)
- Coins bear both Greek (on obverse) and Kharoshthi (on reverse) inscriptions
- Coins often shown with the Dharmachakra (wheel of dharma)
- Death: According to Plutarch, his remains were divided among cities that built stupas over them
Contributions of Indo-Greeks
- Coinage: Introduced die-struck coins with ruler portraits; first to put king’s image on Indian coins; bilingual legends
- Gandhara Art: Hellenistic influence on Buddhist art; Buddha first depicted in human form
- Astronomy and Astrology: Transmission of Greek astronomical knowledge to India
- Medicine: Greek medical concepts incorporated
- Term Yavana: Derived from Ionia; used for Greeks and later all Westerners
Shakas (Scythians) (c. 100 BCE–400 CE)
- Central Asian nomadic tribes (Scythians) pushed south by the Yueh-chi (Kushanas)
- Established kingdoms in NW India, Gujarat, Malwa, and northern Deccan
Important Shaka Rulers and Branches
| Branch |
Region |
Important Rulers |
| Taxila |
Punjab |
Maues (Moga) — first Shaka king in India |
| Mathura |
Western UP |
Rajuvula, Sodasa |
| Western Kshatrapas |
Gujarat-Malwa |
Nahapana, Chashtana, Rudradaman I |
Rudradaman I (c. 130–150 CE)
- Greatest Western Kshatrapa: Ruled Gujarat, Malwa, Saurashtra, Kutch, Sindh
- Junagadh Rock Inscription (first Sanskrit inscription of any significance): Records his victory over Satavahanas and repair of Sudarshana Lake
- A patron of Sanskrit; his inscription is considered the earliest example of royal courtly Sanskrit kavya
Shaka Contributions
- Coinage: Introduced Scythian elements; extensive silver coinage by Western Kshatrapas
- Administration: Introduced the Kshatrapa (Satrap) system of provincial governance
- Trade: Maintained trade links with the Roman Empire through Gujarat ports
- Integration: The Shakas assimilated into Indian society; some converted to Hinduism or Buddhism
Kushana Empire (c. 30–375 CE)
The Kushanas were a branch of the Yueh-chi tribes who migrated from Central Asia. They established the largest and most powerful empire in post-Mauryan India.
Kanishka I (c. 78–101 CE)
- Greatest Kushana ruler: Ascended the throne in 78 CE (beginning of the Shaka Era, still used by Government of India)
- Empire: Extended from Central Asia (Kashgar, Khotan) to Bihar, and from Kashmir to Malwa
- Capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) — primary; Mathura — subsidiary
- Buddhism: A great patron; his reign marks the beginning of Mahayana Buddhism
- Fourth Buddhist Council: Held in Kashmir under Vasumitra; composed the Mahavibhasha commentary
- Art: Gandhara School flourished; Mathura School developed
- Charaka: Court physician; compiled Charaka Samhita
- Ashvaghosha: Court poet; wrote Buddhacharita and Saundarananda
Other Important Kushana Rulers
| Ruler |
Features |
| Kujula Kadphises |
Founder; unified the five Yueh-chi tribes |
| Vima Kadphises |
Gold coinage introduced; Shaivite (coins show Shiva with Nandi) |
| Kanishka |
Greatest ruler; Buddhist patron; Shaka Era |
| Huvishka |
Continued Kanishka’s policies; patron of both Buddhism and Hinduism |
| Vasudeva I |
Last significant ruler; coins show Shiva; decline begins |
Kushana Contributions
| Contribution |
Description |
| Coinage |
First large-scale gold coins in India; depicted Greek, Persian, and Indian deities; bilingual (Greek/Kharoshthi) |
| Gandhara Art |
Greco-Buddhist school; Buddha in human form; Hellenistic stylistic elements |
| Mathura Art |
Indigenous school; red sandstone; famous for Buddha and Jain images |
| Buddhism |
Patronage of Mahayana; spread to Central Asia and China via Silk Route |
| Silk Route |
Controlled key sections; India-China-Rome trade flourished |
| Literature |
Ashvaghosha (Sanskrit poet), Nagarjuna (Mahayana philosopher), Charaka (medicine) |
| Administration |
Introduced Satrap system in India; dual capitals |
Satavahana Dynasty (c. 100 BCE–225 CE)
The Satavahanas (also called Andhras) emerged as the most powerful dynasty in the Deccan after the Mauryas. They are considered the first historical Deccan empire.
Important Rulers
| Ruler |
Features |
| Simuka |
Founder; mentioned in the Naneghat inscription |
| Satakarni I |
First major ruler; performed Ashvamedha and Rajasuya |
| Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 86–110 CE) |
Greatest Satavahana; defeated Shakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas; revived Brahmanism; Nashik inscription by his mother Gautami Balashri |
| Vasishthiputra Pulumavi |
Son of Gautamiputra; held the empire together |
| Yajna Sri Satakarni |
Last significant ruler; coins with ship motif (maritime trade) |
Gautamiputra Satakarni
- Nashik Inscription (by his mother): Calls him “destroyer of Shakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas”
- Revived Brahmanism: Patron of Vedic rituals; gave land grants to Brahmins
- Coinage: Introduced silver portrait coins based on Western Kshatrapa model
- Administration: Divided empire into ahara (districts); efficient land revenue system
Satavahana Contributions
- Administration: Introduced ahara system; land grants to Brahmins and Buddhist monasteries
- Architecture: Rock-cut chaityas and viharas at Karle, Kanheri, Bhaja, Nashik, Junnar
- Amaravati Stupa: One of the greatest stupas; now largely destroyed; elaborate narrative sculptures
- Coins: Portrait coins; bilingual (Prakrit/Telugu); ship motif indicating maritime trade
- Literature: Official language was Prakrit; patronage of Prakrit literature (Hala’s Gathasattasai — 700 Prakrit love poems)
- Trade: Extensive maritime trade with Rome; Pliny complained about drain of Roman gold to India for luxuries
- Social: Matronymics (mentioning mother’s name) — unusual in Indian royal tradition; women held property rights
Foreign Trade in the Post-Mauryan Period
The period saw flourishing trade with the Roman Empire:
| Export from India |
Import from Rome |
| Spices (pepper, cinnamon) |
Gold and silver coins |
| Precious stones and pearls |
Wine |
| Silk and cotton textiles |
Glassware |
| Ivory |
Copper, tin, lead |
| Exotic animals |
Roman pottery (terra sigillata) |
Trade Routes
- Land: Silk Route through Central Asia under Kushana control
- Sea: Monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus (c. 45 CE); Roman trade via Red Sea to Gujarat (Barygaza/Bharuch) and western coast ports (Muziris, Arikamedu)
Archaeological Evidence
- Arikamedu (Puducherry): Indo-Roman trading station; Roman pottery, wine amphorae, glass beads
- Hoards of Roman gold coins found across South India (over 70 hoards)
- Coins of Augustus and Tiberius most common — peak trade in 1st century CE
- Pliny the Elder (1st CE) wrote: “India drains our empire of no less than 50 million sesterces every year”
