Harshavardhana and the Age of Empires

January 10, 2026 6 min read indian-history ancient-history harsha pushyabhuti kannauj

The Pushyabhuti Dynasty (Vardhana Dynasty)

After the decline of the Guptas, the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar (Haryana) emerged as a major power in northern India.

Early Pushyabhutis

Ruler	Period	Features
Pushyabhuti	Late 6th century	Founder; little known
Naravardhana	—	Extended influence
Rajyavardhana I	—	Strengthened the kingdom
Adityavardhana	—	Married princess from Later Gupta family
Prabhakaravardhana	c. 580–605	Powerful ruler; assumed title Maharajadhiraja; described as “a lion to the Huna deer” by Bana

Prabhakaravardhana

First significant Pushyabhuti ruler
Known as Pratapashila (rock of valor)
Two sons: Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana
One daughter: Rajyashri, married to Grahavarman of the Maukhari dynasty of Kannauj
Died in 605 CE; Harsha was about 15

The Crisis

Shortly after Prabhakaravardhana’s death, Devagupta of Malwa (Later Gupta) and Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal) formed an alliance
They attacked and killed Grahavarman of Kannauj
Rajyashri was imprisoned (and later escaped to the Vindhya forests)
Rajyavardhana marched against Devagupta, defeated and killed him
But Shashanka treacherously assassinated Rajyavardhana

Harshavardhana (606–647 CE)

Accession and Early Conquests

At age 16, Harsha ascended the throne after his brother’s assassination
Vowed to avenge his brother’s death and rescue his sister
Assembled a large army and marched against Shashanka
Rescued Rajyashri from the Vindhya forests (where she was about to commit self-immolation)
Made Kannauj his capital — it became the premier political and cultural center of North India

Conquests

Harsha conquered most of northern India over a six-year campaign:

Region	Conquest
Punjab	Subdued the “five Indies”
Kannauj	Annexed Maukhari kingdom
Bengal and Bihar	Partially conquered; Shashanka resisted
Gujarat	Defeated the Vallabhi king (but restored him as feudatory)
Orissa	Brought under control
Kashmir	Received tribute
Nepal	Harsha extracted tribute; sent a mission

Defeat by Pulakeshin II

Harsha marched south to expand his empire beyond the Narmada
Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya king of Badami, defeated him on the banks of the Narmada River (~630 CE)
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II records: “Harsha’s harsha (joy) melted away”
This was Harsha’s only major defeat; the Narmada became the southern boundary of his empire

Extent of Empire

Northern India from the Himalayas to the Narmada
From Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east
Kashmir and Nepal acknowledged his suzerainty
Maintained diplomatic relations with China (Tang dynasty)

Harsha’s Administration

Administrative Structure

Centralized monarchy: Harsha personally supervised administration
Frequent tours (Digvijaya): Harsha traveled constantly throughout his empire to inspect administration
Council of Ministers advised the king
Record keeping: All administrative actions recorded; archives (Nilopitu) maintained
Punishments: Generally mild; trial by ordeal existed; death penalty rare

Revenue System

Land revenue: 1/6th of produce (traditional share)
Revenue spent in four parts according to Hiuen Tsang:
1. Government expenses
2. Salaries of officials
3. Rewards for scholars and men of merit
4. Religious charities

Military

Large army maintained: 100,000 cavalry, 60,000 war elephants, infantry
Army paid in grants of land revenue (beginning of military feudalism)
Cavalry was the main strength

Local Administration

Provinces (Bhuktis) under governors
Districts (Vishayas) under Vishayapatis
Villages had considerable autonomy
In some areas, administration was managed by feudatory rulers (Samantas)

Religion

Harsha’s Personal Faith

Initially a devotee of Shiva (Shaiva)
Later converted to Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hiuen Tsang
Religious tolerance: Patronized all religions; held religious assemblies
Banned animal slaughter in his empire
Built thousands of stupas and viharas along the Ganges

The Kannauj Assembly (643 CE)

Harsha organized a grand assembly at Kannauj in honor of Hiuen Tsang
A golden statue of Buddha was enshrined
Hiuen Tsang delivered lectures on Mahayana doctrine
Representatives of all religion invited

The Prayaga Assembly (643 CE)

Held at Prayag (Allahabad) — a quinquennial (once in 5 years) assembly
Distribution of wealth: Harsha gave away all possessions accumulated over 5 years
First day: Buddha image worshipped; second day: Sun; third day: Shiva
Dana (charity): Hiuen Tsang described the mammoth charity distribution
On one occasion, Harsha reportedly gave away everything including his royal robes and had to borrow clothes from his sister

Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)

The Chinese Buddhist monk Hiuen Tsang visited India (630–644 CE) during Harsha’s reign. His account Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World) is an invaluable source for this period:

His Observations

Harsha personally supervised all administration; traveled constantly
The empire was prosperous; highways were safe; rest houses for travelers
Nalanda University was thriving — Hiuen Tsang studied there under Shilabhadra for 5 years
Buddhism was flourishing alongside Hinduism and Jainism
He noted the existence of untouchability (Chandalas lived outside villages)
Economy: barter was common; cowrie shells and coins both in use
Food: onions were considered impure; rice, wheat, sugarcane, and fruits were staples

Hiuen Tsang’s Itinerary

Place	Observations
Kapisa (Afghanistan)	Buddhist stupas
Taxila	In ruins; Buddhist monasteries
Kashmir	Studied under a Buddhist teacher
Thanesar	Harsha’s ancestral capital
Kannauj	Harsha’s capital; grand assembly
Prayag	Harsha’s quinquennial charity assembly
Nalanda	Studied for 5 years; praised the university
Bengal	Buddhism flourishing
Kanchipuram	Pallava capital; Buddhism on the decline
Maharashtra	Observed Chalukya kingdom

Literature Under Harsha

Harsha was himself a scholar and writer:

Work	Author	Genre
Harshacharita	Banabhatta	Biography of Harsha (prose)
Kadambari	Banabhatta	Prose romance
Ratnavali	Harsha (attributed)	Drama
Priyadarshika	Harsha (attributed)	Drama
Nagananda	Harsha (attributed)	Drama (Buddhist theme)
Parvatiparinaya	Banabhatta	Lost work
Chandishataka	Banabhatta	Poem in honor of Chandi

Banabhatta was Harsha’s court poet and one of the greatest prose writers in Sanskrit:

His Harshacharita is the first historical biography in Sanskrit
Kadambari is considered one of the greatest prose romances in world literature
Style characterized by long compounds, elaborate descriptions, and poetic prose

Economy and Society

Economy

Coins: Silver coins of Harsha (Sasanka type) with peacock motif
Agriculture: Primary occupation; rice, wheat, sugarcane major crops
Trade: Internal trade flourished; decline in foreign trade after Roman Empire’s fall
Guilds (Shrenis): Continued to be important in trade and industry

Society

Varna system: Well established; rise of new castes (Jatis)
Position of women: Restricted compared to earlier periods; purdah system emerging in some areas
Education: Universities at Nalanda, Valabhi, Vikramashila
Sati: Practiced but not widespread
Slavery: Seven types of slaves according to Hiuen Tsang
Marriage: Eight forms of marriage recognized; intercaste marriages existed but discouraged
Food: Vegetarianism increasing, especially among upper castes

Harsha’s Death and Aftermath

Harsha died in 647 CE without an heir
His empire disintegrated rapidly after his death
A Chinese mission under Wang Xuance was attacked; Wang defeated the usurper with Tibetan and Nepali help
The political vacuum led to the rise of numerous regional kingdoms
The age of large-scale empires in northern India ended until the coming of the Turks

Significance

Last great Hindu emperor of North India
His reign marks the end of the ancient period of Indian history and the transition to the early medieval period
Embodied the ideal of a benevolent monarch: patron of arts, tolerant in religion, personally engaged in governance
His close relationship with Hiuen Tsang symbolizes the high point of Indo-Chinese cultural exchange