Delhi Sultanate — Slave Dynasty (1206–1290)

Background: Turkish Conquest of North India

The Second Battle of Tarain (1192) between Muhammad Ghori (Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam) and Prithviraj III Chauhan marked the decisive turning point. Ghori’s victory opened the Gangetic plain to Turkish conquest.

After Ghori’s assassination in 1206, his Indian possessions passed to his trusted slave-general Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who founded the Delhi Sultanate — the first major Islamic state in India, lasting from 1206 to 1526.

The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206–1290)

The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is called the “Slave Dynasty” because its founders — Aibak, Iltutmish, and Balban — were originally slaves (mamluks) who rose through military merit.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210)

Aspect	Details
Background	Turkish slave purchased by Muhammad Ghori; rose to become his most trusted general
Foundation	Declared independence after Ghori’s death; established Delhi Sultanate
Capital	Initially Lahore; later Delhi
Title	Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs) for his generosity
Architecture	Began construction of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi) and Qutb Minar (completed by Iltutmish)
Death	Died in 1210 while playing polo (chaugan) in Lahore; buried at Anarkali Bazaar

Key Contributions

• Administrative foundation: Established the framework of Turkish administration in India
• Religious policy: Destroyed Hindu and Jain temples to build mosques (Quwwat-ul-Islam built at site of 27 demolished temples)
• Coins: Issued coins in his name — assertion of sovereignty
• No major conquests: Ruled only 4 years; primarily consolidated existing territories

Aram Shah (1210–1211)

• Son of Aibak; incompetent ruler
• Defeated and killed by Iltutmish within a year

Iltutmish (1211–1236) — The Real Consolidator

Iltutmish is considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He was a slave of Aibak, later his son-in-law.

Consolidation of Power

Challenge	Response
Yildiz (Ghori’s successor in Ghazni)	Defeated and killed at Battle of Tarain (1216); removed Ghazni threat
Qabacha (ruler of Multan and Sindh)	Defeated after prolonged campaign; annexed Sindh
Bengal (Khalji maliks)	Subdued rebellious governors; reestablished Delhi’s authority
Rajput resistance	Captured Ranthambore, Gwalior, and Mandore
Mongol threat	Diplomatic skill: refused asylum to Jalal-ud-din Mangbarni (Khwarazm Shah) who was fleeing Mongols under Genghis Khan — saved India from Mongol invasion

Key Actions

• Letter of Investiture (1229): Received recognition from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah of Baghdad — legitimized his rule
• Chalisa (Forty): Created a corps of 40 loyal Turkish slave officers (Amir-i-Chahalgani or Turkan-i-Chihilgani) — the real power behind the throne
• Coinage: Introduced the silver Tanka (175 grains) and copper Jital — standard currency for centuries
• Iqta system: Institutionalized the assignment of land revenue (iqtas) to nobles in lieu of salary
• Completion of Qutb Minar: Three more storeys added; named after Sufi saint Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki

Succession Crisis

Iltutmish nominated his daughter Razia as successor (unprecedented — a woman heir!), but after his death, the nobles installed his weak son Rukn-ud-din Firoz (1236). His mother Shah Turkan exercised real power; disorder ensued.

Razia Sultan (1236–1240)

First and only Muslim woman ruler of Delhi:

Aspect	Details
Background	Daughter of Iltutmish; educated in administration and warfare
Accession	After Rukn-ud-din was deposed; popular support but noble opposition
Challenges	Turkish nobles (Chahalgani) opposed rule by a woman; rebellions constant

Achievements

• Abandoned purdah; dressed in male attire (coat and cap); rode elephants; led armies personally
• Appointed an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave, Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, as Amir-i-Akhur (Master of Stables) — enraged Turkish nobles
• Established law and order; suppressed revolts in Multan, Lahore, and Bengal

Downfall

• Altunia, governor of Bhatinda, rebelled; Yaqut killed; Razia captured
• Razia cleverly married Altunia to win his support; both marched on Delhi
• Defeated by nobles; both killed in October 1240 near Kaithal
• Buried near Turkman Gate, Delhi

Her tomb bears the inscription: “The grave of Sultana, the seeker of God’s mercy, Razia, daughter of Iltutmish”

Aftermath

• Weak rulers: Bahram Shah (1240–1242), Masud Shah (1242–1246), Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–1266)
• Real power held by the Chalisa (Forty nobles) and Balban (who served as Naib — regent)

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–1287)

Balban was the most powerful ruler of the Slave Dynasty after Iltutmish:

Background

• Turkish slave of Iltutmish; rose through the ranks
• Served as regent under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (who married Balban’s daughter)
• Ascended throne at age ~60; called himself Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God on Earth)

Balban’s Administration

Theory of Kingship

• Elevated the status of the Sultan to semi-divine
• Introduced Sijda (prostration before Sultan) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) — Persian court rituals
• Claimed descent from the mythical Iranian hero Afrasiyab
• Maintained strict court etiquette; never laughed or joked in public
• Separated the Sultan from common nobles; enforced rigid protocol

Military Reforms

• Destroyed the Chalisa: Eliminated the Forty — crushed the nobility’s independent power
• Created a strong standing army under direct Sultan’s control
• Established a spy network (Barids) throughout the empire
• Fortified the NW frontier against Mongols; built forts and posted garrisons

Internal Security

• Suppressed Mewat dacoits: Cleared forests around Delhi; killed or captured bandits
• Suppressed Tughlaqabad rebels: Established law and order
• Punished even high nobles: Flogged Malik Baqbaq (governor) for killing a servant while drunk; similarly punished others

Blood and Iron Policy

Balban was ruthless in suppressing rebellion:

• Tughril Khan (governor of Bengal) rebelled — Balban personally led a campaign, killed Tughril, and ordered mass executions; reportedly left a line of gibbets along the road to Bengal
• Rule of terror: “The Sultan’s justice was impartial; his punishments severe”

Mongol Threat

• Appointed his son Muhammad Khan (the “Martyr Prince”) to defend the NW frontier
• Muhammad Khan was killed fighting Mongols at Lahore (1286) — deeply affected Balban
• His younger son Bughra Khan, governor of Bengal, refused to come to Delhi — Balban died heartbroken in 1287

Administration Under the Slave Dynasty

Iqta System

• Military-administrative grants: nobles assigned territory (iqta) to collect revenue
• In return, they maintained troops and provided military service
• Originally temporary; became hereditary over time
• Khalsa land: Crown land directly administered for Sultan’s treasury

Central Administration

Official	Function
Wazir	Head of revenue department (Diwan-i-Wazarat)
Ariz-i-Mumalik	Head of military department (Diwan-i-Arz)
Sadr-us-Sudur	Head of religious and judicial department
Barid-i-Mumalik	Chief intelligence officer
Dabir-i-Khas	Private secretary to Sultan
Wakil-i-Dar	Controller of royal household

Provincial Administration

• Provinces (iqtas or wilayat) under Muqtis (governors)
• Muqtis collected revenue, maintained law and order, and provided military contingents
• Sub-provinces (shiqqs) under Shiqqdars
• Parganas under Amils; villages retained autonomy

Justice

• Qazi-ul-Quzzat: Chief judge; administered Islamic law (Sharia)
• Diwan-i-Mazalim: Court of complaints; presided by Sultan
• Non-Muslims judged by their own personal laws
• Punishments were harsh under Balban (public flogging, execution)

Economy

• Land revenue: Primary source of state income; 1/5th to 1/3rd of produce
• Kharaj: Land tax on non-Muslims (distinct from ushr on Muslims)
• Jiziya: Poll tax on non-Muslims (not uniformly enforced under Slave Dynasty)
• Zakat: 2.5% religious tax on wealthy Muslims
• Trade: Revived after initial disruption; Delhi as commercial center
• Textiles: Cotton and silk industries; slave trade also existed

Architecture Under Slave Dynasty

Building	Builder	Features
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque	Qutb-ud-din Aibak	First mosque in Delhi; built on site of demolished temples
Qutb Minar	Aibak (started), Iltutmish (completed)	72.5m high; 5 storeys; victory tower
Adhai Din Ka Jhopra	Qutb-ud-din Aibak	Mosque in Ajmer; originally a Sanskrit college
Sultan Ghari	Iltutmish	Tomb of his son; earliest Islamic mausoleum in India
Tomb of Iltutmish	Iltutmish	Red sandstone; first use of squinch arches in India
Balban’s Tomb	Balban	Ruined; first use of true arch in India
Hauz-i-Shamshi	Iltutmish	Large water reservoir

The End of the Slave Dynasty

• Balban’s grandson Kaiqubad (1287–1290) ascended; a luxury-loving, incompetent youth
• Paralyzed and killed; nobles placed his infant son on the throne
• Jalal-ud-din Khalji (the army commander) seized power in 1290 — founding the Khalji Dynasty
• The Khaljis were of Turkic-Afghan origin; considered inferior by the pure Turkish nobility