Khalji Dynasty and Economic Reforms
The Khalji Revolution
The Khaljis were of Turko-Afghan origin and were considered inferior by the pure Turkish nobility of Delhi. Their rise represented the replacement of Turkish exclusivity with a broader ruling class. The dynasty lasted only 30 years but transformed the Sultanate.
| Ruler | Period | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Jalal-ud-din Khalji | 1290–1296 | Founder; mild and tolerant; murdered by his nephew |
| Alauddin Khalji | 1296–1316 | Greatest Khalji; military genius, administrator, economic reformer |
| Qutb-ud-din Mubarak | 1316–1320 | Debauched; killed by Khusrau Khan |
| Khusrau Khan | 1320 | Usurper; killed by Ghazi Malik (Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq) |
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290–1296)
- Accession: Seized throne at age 70 after Kaiqubad’s death
- Policy of tolerance: “The Hindus are the majority; they should not be troubled”
- Refused to massacre Mongols who had settled in India and converted to Islam (New Muslims/Neo-Muslims)
- Repelled a Mongol invasion under Abdullah (grandson of Halaku/Hulagu Khan)
- Suppressed a revolt by Malik Chhajju (nephew of Balban) at Kara
- Alauddin’s betraval: His nephew and son-in-law Alauddin killed him at Kara in 1296
Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) — The Great Reformer
Alauddin was the most powerful Sultan of the Khalji dynasty. His reign marks the peak of the Delhi Sultanate under the first two dynasties.
Military Conquests
| Campaign | Commander | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Gujarat (1299) | Ulugh Khan & Nusrat Khan | Annexed; looted Somnath; captured slave Malik Kafur |
| Ranthambore (1301) | Alauddin in person | Hammir Deva Chauhan killed after heroic resistance |
| Chittor (1303) | Alauddin in person | Rana Ratan Singh defeated; Padmini’s jauhar (according to legend) |
| Malwa (1305) | Ain-ul-Mulk Multani | Annexed; Mandu captured |
| Deccan Campaigns (1307–1311) | Malik Kafur | Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Madurai; enormous booty |
| Siwana and Jalore | Alauddin/Kamaluddin | Rajput strongholds in Rajasthan subjugated |
Malik Kafur’s Deccan Campaign
The eunuch slave-general Malik Kafur (also called Hazar Dinari — “Thousand-Dinar”) led a series of spectacular campaigns into South India:
| Year | Target | Ruler | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1307 | Devagiri | Ramachandra Deva | Submitted; paid tribute |
| 1309–1310 | Warangal | Prataparudra Deva | Defeated; paid tribute; Koh-i-Noor diamond acquired |
| 1311 | Dwarasamudra | Ballala III (Hoyasala) | Defeated; submitted |
| 1311 | Madurai | Pandya kingdom | Defeated; enormous booty |
The Deccan campaigns were plunder raids, not annexations. Alauddin established the precedent of Sultanate interference in the Deccan.
Mongol Invasions
Alauddin’s reign saw the maximum Mongol threat. At least 12 Mongol invasions occurred:
- 1299 — Qutlugh Khwaja: Reached outskirts of Delhi; defeated by Zafar Khan (who died in battle)
- 1303 — Taraghai: Besieged Delhi; Alauddin defended from Siri fort
- 1305 — Ali Beg and Tartaq: Defeated; captured Mongol leaders trampled by elephants
- 1306 — Kabak: Last major Mongol invasion; decisively defeated
Alauddin’s response to the Mongol threat: fortified Delhi, built Siri Fort, maintained a large standing army, and employed the “New Muslims” massacre after their rebellion.
Market Control Policy — Economic Reforms
Alauddin’s most significant contribution was his market control system, aimed at maintaining a large army on modest salaries:
Objectives
- To maintain a large standing army without financial strain
- To fix low prices so soldiers could live on low salaries
- To ensure stable supply of essential commodities
- To prevent hoarding and black marketing
Implementation
| Commodity | Price Regulation | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|
| Food grains | Wheat: 7.5 jitals/man; Barley: 4 jitals/man; Rice: 5 jitals/man | Price fixed; controlled by Shahana-i-Mandi (Market Controller) |
| Cloth | Graded and priced by quality | Sold only through government-controlled shops |
| Horses | Graded: Grade-I (100–200 tankas); Grade-II (80–90); Grade-III (60–70) | Only dealers with permits; open market banned |
| Cattle and slaves | Fixed prices | Controlled market |
| Other goods | Fruits, vegetables, sugar, oil, butter | Moderate pricing |
Administrative Machinery
| Official | Responsibility |
|---|---|
| Shahana-i-Mandi | Overall market controller |
| Diwan-i-Riyasat | Department of market control |
| Barids (spies) | Secret informers; reported price violations |
| Parwana Raigan | Permits issued to grain merchants |
| Sahana-i-Bazar | Local market supervisors |
Enforcement
- Register of merchants: All merchants registered; supplied fixed quantities at fixed prices
- Grain storage: Government granaries (royal stores) maintained in Delhi
- Rationing: During famines and scarcities
- Punishment: Severe penalties for violation; flesh cut from body for short-weighing
- No one — not even nobles — could buy directly from peasants; all had to go through controlled markets
Success
- Prices remained stable throughout Alauddin’s reign
- Barani (contemporary historian): “Even during famine, grain prices did not rise”
- Ibn Battuta: Described the system as unique in the medieval world
Military Reforms
Alauddin maintained the first standing army of the Delhi Sultanate directly paid by the state:
- Dagh (branding): Every horse branded with royal mark
- Chehra (descriptive roll): Detailed register of each soldier
- Ariz-i-Mumalik: Military department; maintained muster rolls
- Soldiers paid in cash (not iqta assignments)
- Army composition: 475,000 cavalry; regular army + contingents
- No hereditary commands: Prevented formation of military aristocracy
Revenue Reforms
Alauddin’s revenue policy was notably harsh, aimed at extracting maximum surplus from the countryside:
- Land revenue (Kharaj): Raised to 50% of produce (from traditional 1/3rd to 1/5th)
- Measurement (Masahat): Land measured before assessment (not estimate-based)
- Biswa as standard unit of measurement
- Additional cesses: Charai (grazing tax), Ghari (house tax)
- Collected in kind (not cash)
- Direct collection by state officials; intermediaries eliminated
- Peasantry reduced to bare subsistence
Rationale
- Finance large army for Mongol defense
- Deprive Hindu chiefs and intermediaries of surplus (prevent rebellions)
- Barani: Alauddin believed “the Hindu should be so reduced as to be unable to ride a horse or bear arms”
Religious Policy
- Alauddin was not orthodox: He once told Qazi Mughis that “religion has nothing to do with the business of the state”
- Considered himself above the Sharia for political expediency
- Did not read the Khutba in the Caliph’s name (first Sultan to do so)
- Banned wine drinking and social gatherings of nobles (political, not religious motive)
- Continued Jiziya on non-Muslims
- Destroyed temples and banned construction of new ones
Architecture
| Structure | Features |
|---|---|
| Siri Fort | Built in 1302 to defend against Mongols; second city of Delhi |
| Alai Darwaza | Magnificent gateway to Qutb complex; first true dome in India; red sandstone with white marble inlay |
| Alai Minar | Intended to be double Qutb Minar; incomplete — only one storey completed |
| Hauz-i-Khas | Large water tank; later became site of Firoz Shah’s madrasa |
| Jamat Khana Masjid | Mosque at Nizamuddin Dargah |
Assessment of Alauddin
Strengths
- Military genius who defended India from Mongols
- Brilliant administrator with innovative economic policies
- Expanded Sultanate to Peninsular India
- Strong centralized state
Weaknesses
- Harsh and extractive revenue system
- Suspicious and often cruel — eliminated nobles who might threaten him
- Did not build institutional foundations that could survive his death
- Died in 1316, probably poisoned by Malik Kafur
Contradictions
- Both a ruthless despot and a visionary reformer
- Maintained strict price control yet accumulated enormous personal wealth
- Proclaimed secular kingship but continued jiziya
After Alauddin
Malik Kafur placed Alauddin’s young son Shihab-ud-din Omar on the throne and became regent. Kafur was soon killed. Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (Alauddin’s adult son) took power, reversed many of his father’s policies, and was eventually assassinated by his favorite Hindu convert slave Khusrau Khan (1320). Khusrau Khan’s brief misrule ended when Ghazi Malik (Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq) defeated and killed him, founding the Tughlaq dynasty.