Foundation (1336)
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka I, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. According to tradition, they were inspired by the sage Vidyaranya (Madhavacharya) of the Sringeri Matha.
Origin Debate
| Theory |
Argument |
| Kannada origin |
Harihara and Bukka were Kannadiga officers in the Hoysala army; related to the Sangama family |
| Telugu origin |
They were originally from the Warangal region; served the Kakatiyas before moving south |
Modern consensus: they were of Kannada origin who initially served the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later the Kampili kingdom, before founding their own kingdom.
The Four Dynasties
| Dynasty |
Period |
Key Features |
| Sangama |
1336–1485 |
Founders; expansion under Bukka I and Devaraya II |
| Saluva |
1485–1505 |
Short-lived; saved the empire from decline |
| Tuluva |
1505–1570 |
Golden age under Krishnadevaraya; Battle of Talikota |
| Aravidu |
1570–1646 |
Decline; shifted capital to Penukonda, Chandragiri |
Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485)
Harihara I (1336–1356)
- First ruler; consolidated the kingdom
- Extended control over Tungabhadra-Krishna doab
- Fortified the capital; organized administration
Bukka I (1356–1377)
- Real empire builder; extended control over much of South India
- Defeated the Madurai Sultanate (1371) — a major triumph ending Islamic rule in Tamil country
- Sent embassy to China (Ming dynasty) — described in Chinese records
- Fought against the Bahmani Sultanate for control of the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab
- Patronized Vedic scholarship; Vidyaranya composed commentaries
Devaraya II (1423–1446)
- The greatest Sangama ruler; called Proudhadevaraya and Gajabetekara (Hunter of Elephants)
- Expanded empire: included all of South India and parts of Sri Lanka
- Maintained Muslim archers in his army — pragmatic military policy
- Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited his court (1443); left a vivid description
- Patronized literature: Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit works flourished
- Created a large irrigation tank (Devaraya Samudra)
Decline of Sangamas
- Weak successors after Devaraya II
- Internal corruption; provincial governors became powerful
- Saluva Narasimha, a powerful general, deposed the last Sangama ruler (1485)
Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570)
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) — The Greatest
Krishnadevaraya is universally acknowledged as the greatest Vijayanagara emperor.
| Aspect |
Details |
| Coronation |
August 8, 1509 (Krishna Janmashtami) |
| Titles |
Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana, Andhra Bhoja, Mooru Rayara Ganda (Lord of Three Kings) |
| Appearance |
Domingo Paes (Portuguese): “Of medium height, fair complexion, good figure; a man of much justice” |
Military Achievements
| Campaign |
Year |
Outcome |
| Bahmani Sultanates |
1509–1510 |
Defeated Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur; occupied Raichur Doab |
| Gajapatis of Orissa |
1513–1517 |
Defeated Prataparudra Deva; captured Udayagiri, Kondavidu; married his daughter |
| Bijapur |
1520 |
Battle of Raichur — decisive victory; captured Raichur fort |
| Golkonda |
— |
Reduced Qutb Shahi power |
| Portuguese |
— |
Maintained friendly relations; purchased Arabian horses and firearms |
Administration and Welfare
- Justice: Toured the empire; personally heard complaints
- Temple patronage: Enlarged and richly endowed Tirupati (Venkateswara), Srisailam, and many other temples
- Irrigation: Built tanks and canals; encouraged agriculture
- Military: Maintained a massive army with Portuguese-supplied firearms and horses
- “The king is the protector of his people” was his governing principle
Literature — Ashtadiggajas
Krishnadevaraya’s court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (Eight Elephants of Directions), the greatest Telugu poets:
| Poet |
Work |
| Allasani Peddana |
Manucharitram (Andhra Kavita Pitamaha — Father of Telugu poetry) |
| Nandi Timmana |
Parijatapaharanam |
| Tenali Ramakrishna |
Panduranga Mahatmyam (also known for wit and humor) |
| Dhurjati |
Kalahasti Mahatmyam |
| Pingali Suranna |
Raghavapandaviyam |
| Ramaraja Bhushana |
Vasucharitram |
| Madayagari Mallana |
Rajashekharacharitram |
| Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra |
Sakalakathasarasangraham |
Krishnadevaraya himself authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu), a poetic work on Andal (the Tamil Vaishnava saint), and a Sanskrit play Jambavati Kalyanam.
Achyuta Devaraya (1529–1542)
- Half-brother of Krishnadevaraya
- Reign marked by internal revolts and growing power of nobles (particularly Aliya Rama Raya)
- Portuguese traveler Fernao Nuniz visited during his reign
Sadasiva Raya (1542–1570)
- Puppet ruler; real power exercised by his regent Aliya Rama Raya
The Battle of Talikota (Rakkasagi-Tangadgi, 1565)
The catastrophic battle that destroyed Vijayanagara:
Background
- Aliya Rama Raya, the de facto ruler, pursued a policy of exploiting divisions among the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, Bidar, Berar)
- He alternately allied with one Sultanate against another; this created deep resentment
- The Sultanates united against Vijayanagara for the first time
The Battle (January 23, 1565)
- Combined Deccan Sultanate armies vs. Vijayanagara at Talikota (between the Krishna and Tungabhadra)
- At a critical moment, two Muslim commanders in the Vijayanagara army defected — this turned the battle
- Aliya Rama Raya was captured and beheaded on the battlefield (his severed head displayed on a spear)
- The Vijayanagara army disintegrated; massive slaughter ensued
Sack of Vijayanagara
- The victorious Sultanate armies marched on Vijayanagara city
- The city was sacked, looted, and systematically destroyed for 6 months
- Temples were vandalized; citizens massacred
- The city was abandoned and never reoccupied
- Domingo Paes’ glowing description contrasts with later traveler Caesar Frederick’s account of ruins
Aftermath
- The empire shifted capital to Penukonda, then Chandragiri, later Vellore
- Survived in diminished form under the Aravidu dynasty until 1646
- The regional powers (Nayakas) of Madurai, Thanjavur, Gingee, and Mysore became independent
Administration
| Level |
Officer |
Function |
| Empire |
Raya (King) |
Supreme authority |
| Province |
Rajya under Mandaleshvara or Mahamandaleshvara |
Provincial governance |
| District |
Nadu under Nadagavunda |
Revenue and judicial administration |
| Village |
Grama under Gauda (headman) and Karnam (accountant) |
Local administration |
Nayankara System
- Military-feudal system: Nayakas (military chiefs) were assigned territories (amaram)
- In return, they maintained a specified number of troops, horses, and elephants
- Nayakas retained a share of the revenue; remitted the rest to the state
- The system was similar to the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate but more decentralized
- Over time, Nayakas became hereditary; contributed to the empire’s decline
Ayagar System
- Village-level hereditary officers collectively called Ayagars (12 functionaries):
- Gauda — headman
- Karnam (Shanbhog) — accountant
- Talari — watchman
- Totigar — gardener
- Nirganti — water distributor
(and 7 others)
Revenue
- Land revenue: 1/6th to 1/2 of produce (varied by region, crop, soil)
- Assessment based on survey and classification of land
- Revenue collected both in cash and kind
- Additional taxes: grazing, marriage, plow, professional taxes
- Trade and customs duties: significant revenue source
Economy and Trade
Agriculture
- Tanks and canals for irrigation (especially in the drier Deccan)
- Rice (wet zones), millets (dry zones), sugarcane, cotton
- Spices: pepper, cardamom, cinnamon from the Western Ghats
Trade
| Commodity |
Import/Export |
Partners |
| Horses |
Imported |
Arabia, Persia (via Portuguese Goa) |
| Textiles |
Exported |
Southeast Asia, Middle East |
| Pepper and spices |
Exported |
Europe (Portuguese) |
| Diamonds |
Exported |
Kollur mines (Golconda region) |
| Precious metals |
Imported |
Worldwide |
Ports
- Goa, Bhatkal, Honavar, Mangalore — on the west coast
- Pulicat, Masulipatnam — on the east coast
Art and Architecture
Vijayanagara Style — Key Features
- Use of hard granite; massive scale; intricate carvings
- Gopurams (temple towers) became taller and more elaborate
- Mandapas (pillared halls): Kalyana Mandapa (marriage hall), Ranga Mandapa
- Pillars: Composite pillars with rearing horses (Yali), mythical creatures
- Walls: Fortifications with multiple concentric walls
Major Monuments
| Site |
Structure |
Features |
| Hampi (Vijayanagara) |
Virupaksha Temple |
Oldest; expanded by Krishnadevaraya; eastern gopuram |
| Hampi |
Vittala Temple |
Famous stone chariot; musical pillars |
| Hampi |
Hazara Rama Temple |
Royal temple; bas-reliefs of Ramayana scenes |
| Hampi |
Lotus Mahal |
Indo-Islamic influences; elegant arches |
| Hampi |
Elephant Stables |
Massive domed chambers for royal elephants |
| Lepakshi |
Veerabhadra Temple |
Hanging pillar; magnificent frescoes |
| Tirupati |
Venkateswara Temple |
Major additions by Krishnadevaraya (statues of himself and his two queens) |
| Kalahasti |
Shiva Temple |
Major expansion; fine sculpture |
Hampi — The Imperial Capital
The ruins at Hampi (UNESCO World Heritage Site) reveal:
- Seven concentric lines of fortifications
- Royal enclosure with palaces, audience halls, tanks
- Sacred center along the Tungabhadra (Virupaksha, Vittala, Krishna temples)
- Domestic and commercial quarters
- Advanced water supply system (aqueducts, tanks, channels)
Decline of Vijayanagara
| Factor |
Description |
| Talikota (1565) |
Catastrophic defeat; capital destroyed |
| Nayankara system |
Nayakas became hereditary and disloyal |
| Succession disputes |
Frequent civil wars after Talikota |
| Rise of Nayakas |
Madurai, Thanjavur, Mysore Nayakas became independent |
| Portuguese competition |
Challenged Vijayanagara’s trade monopoly |
| Bijapur and Golkonda |
Expanding Deccan Sultanates pressed from the north |
Significance
- Last great Hindu empire of the South
- Preserved Hindu culture and institutions during centuries of Islamic rule in the North
- Temple architecture reached new heights, influencing South Indian style permanently
- Administrative innovations (Nayankara, Ayagar) that were adopted by successor states
- Krishnadevaraya stands as the ideal of a benevolent, cultured Hindu monarch
